Sources: The Quran; Ibn Hisham’s Sira (biography of Muhammad, ~830 AD); Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim (hadith collections, ~850 AD); Ibn Ishaq’s original Sira (~760 AD, partially reconstructed).

Islam (Arabic: submission/peace) emerges in the Hijaz (western Arabia) in the early 7th century as Muhammad ibn Abdullah (~570–632 AD) receives revelations he identifies as the direct speech of God (Allah), transmitted through the angel Jibril (Gabriel). The theological framework: God is one (tawhid), has sent prophets throughout history (Adam, Ibrahim, Musa, Isa — all recognized), and Muhammad is the final seal of the prophets (Khatam al-Anbiya), with the Quran as the final, uncorrupted revelation superseding previous scriptures which were distorted (tahrif). The Five Pillars: Shahada (testimony of faith), Salat (five daily prayers), Zakat (almsgiving), Sawm (Ramadan fasting), Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). The Hijra (migration from Mecca to Medina, 622 AD) is the start of the Islamic calendar — the moment Islam becomes a political community (umma) as well as a religious one. Muhammad dies 632 AD without designating a successor, creating the succession crisis that produces the Sunni-Shia split. By 750 AD the Islamic empire stretches from Spain to Central Asia — the fastest territorial expansion of any religious movement in history, achieved through a combination of military conquest, favorable terms for conquered peoples, and the genuine religious appeal of a clear, accessible monotheism with strong social ethics.