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Council of Chalcedon
Sources: The Definition of Chalcedon (451 AD); Leo I’s Tome; Cyril of Alexandria’s letters; the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) acts; Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History.
The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) is the fourth ecumenical council and the most theologically precise — and divisive — Christological definition in Christian history. Convened by Emperor Marcian after the disastrous “Robber Council” of Ephesus (449 AD), it defined Christ as: one person in two natures — divine and human — without confusion, without change, without division, without separation (the four adverbs). The two natures exist in one hypostasis (person/subsistence) — the Hypostatic Union. This definition navigated between Nestorius (condemned for apparently dividing Christ into two persons) and Eutyches (condemned for merging the natures into one). Leo I’s Tome provided the Western theological framework; the Eastern theologians struggled with the formula since their tradition used different terminology (Cyril’s “one nature after the union”). The schism it caused: The Coptic, Ethiopian, Armenian, and Syriac churches rejected Chalcedon — not because they agreed with Eutyches but because they held a Miaphysite position (one united nature, divine and human) that they believed the Chalcedonian formula misrepresented. These Oriental Orthodox churches remain separated from both Catholic/Orthodox and Protestant Christianity to this day. Modern ecumenical dialogue (notably the Catholic-Coptic agreement of 1988) has established that the disagreement may be terminological rather than substantive — both sides confessing the same reality in different words.