Sources: Israeli, Sudanese, American, and Jewish Agency accounts; Beta Israel oral histories; records from refugee camps in Sudan.

Operation Moses airlifted thousands of Beta Israel from Sudan to Israel in late 1984 and early 1985 after a dangerous overland migration from Ethiopia. Famine, civil war, persecution, and longstanding desire for Jerusalem pushed families to walk through harsh terrain toward Sudanese camps. Many died from hunger, disease, violence, and exhaustion before reaching evacuation. The operation required secrecy because Sudan was an Arab League state, and public exposure ended the airlift before all families could leave.

The operation became a central episode in modern Ethiopian Jewish history: rescue, trauma, and separation occurred together. Families were split between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Israel; survivors carried memories of lost relatives and dangerous camps. Arrival in Israel brought religious recognition debates, Hebrew education, military service, racism, and questions about preserving Beta Israel customs. The event also changed Israeli consciousness by forcing a broader reckoning with Jewish diversity beyond Europe and the Middle East.