Sources: Charles Taze Russell, Studies in the Scriptures (7 vols.); The Watchtower (journal, from 1879); Nathan Knorr’s organizational reforms; the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1961).

Jehovah’s Witnesses (~1872 AD) began with Charles Taze Russell (~1852–1916 AD), a Pittsburgh businessman who studied the Bible independently and concluded that traditional Christianity had corrupted apostolic teaching. Key theological positions: (1) Anti-Trinitarianism — Jehovah (YHWH) alone is God; Jesus is “a god” (John 1:1 in the NWT), the first creation of Jehovah, the archangel Michael in human form; the Holy Spirit is God’s active force, not a person; (2) No immortal soul — the soul is the person; death is unconsciousness; resurrection is God re-creating the person; (3) The 144,000 and the Great Crowd — only 144,000 go to heaven to rule with Christ; the rest of the saved will live forever on a restored paradise earth; (4) Blood transfusion refusal — based on Acts 15:29 and Genesis 9:4, a position that has cost lives and generated significant legal controversy; (5) Political neutrality — no voting, military service, or saluting flags; (6) The organization as God’s channel — the Governing Body of the Watch Tower Society is the “faithful and discreet slave” (Matt 24:45) through whom God speaks. Failed predictions (1914, 1925, 1975) have been significant tests of organizational authority. ~8.7 million active members worldwide.