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Russian Orthodox Church
Sources: The Primary Chronicle (Tale of Bygone Years, ~1113 AD); Vladimir Solovyov, Russia and the Universal Church; the Moscow-Constantinople split (2018–19).
Russian Orthodoxy officially begins with the baptism of Prince Vladimir of Kiev (~988 AD) — the story in the Primary Chronicle has Vladimir sending envoys to investigate Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Eastern Orthodoxy; his envoys report that at Hagia Sophia they did not know whether they were in heaven or on earth. Vladimir chose Orthodoxy and baptized his people in the Dnieper River. Key developments: (1) Moscow as the Third Rome (after Rome fell to the barbarians and Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453) — the theory that Moscow was the final seat of true Christian civilization, articulated by Monk Philotheus of Pskov (~1510 AD); (2) The Patriarchate of Moscow established ~1589 AD under Patriarch Job, with recognition from Constantinople; (3) The Old Believer schism (~1666 AD) — Patriarch Nikon’s liturgical reforms provoked the Raskol (split); the Old Believers (Starovery) refused the changes and were persecuted; (4) Peter the Great’s abolition of the Patriarchate (1721) — replacing it with the Holy Synod under imperial control; (5) Soviet persecution — the Russian church suffered devastating persecution under Bolshevism, with thousands of clergy executed and churches destroyed; (6) Post-Soviet revival — the church has become central to Russian national identity under Putin, with complex political entanglement. The 2018–19 split with Constantinople over Ukrainian church autocephaly is the most significant Orthodox schism in centuries.